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Hegemony and Education (Coursework) - 1100 Words

Hegemony and Education (Coursework Sample) Content: Hegemony and EducationNameGrade CourseTutors NameNovember, 30, 2012Hegemony and Education In Marxist theory, Hegemony is used to describe the complex ways that the dominant, most powerful class (bourgeoisie) maintains monopoly over power by controlling ideas. The dominant class has the power to impose norms and write history because it controls and directs educational, state, scientific, cultural, religious, etc institutions. Apart from delivering material services, the education system conveniently acts as an ideological system for the dominant class because its activities are directly controlled by the state in the case of public education and through grants in case of private universities. Male norms stress values such as autonomy, certain forms of aggression, adventure, courage, toughness of both mind and body etc. Hegemony involves persuasion of the greater part of the population the organization of social institutions and the media in ways that appear natural. H egemonic masculinity in education involves the application of certain strategies for the subordination of women (Gibbs, 2008).Most universities promote an ideology that fosters the outlook of white middle class males. Through the media, sports in universities have helped uphold a masculine hegemonic order in society (Kian, 2007). In comparison to womens sports, mens sports and male athletes are given more coverage. This gives a clear depiction of how masculinity is cherished more than femininity. The education system has therefore institutionalized gender with the aim of constituting people as two significantly different categories, male and female so as to organize social relations of inequality on the basis of this difference (Gibb, 2008). The gender system in universities just like race becomes constructed as a distinct organizing principle of social relations to determine how resources are distributed. Thus, cultural beliefs about gender are nothing more than stereotypes. Howev er, the significance of such stereotypes is more significant than we may want to think. For instance, the sex composition of a student-teacher interaction is certain to bring to mind gender beliefs that will determine how students evaluate each others performance and how to enact their individual roles. Biological factors such as high levels of testosterone in men and different genetic make up are thought to affect cognitive abilities of men and women differently. Such biological factors are held to be the cause of difference in educational performance between male and females. Cultural beliefs that male students are supposed to exhibit an interest in traditional masculine subjects i.e. physics and past times such as rugby, football, athletics etc. constitute strategies for the construction of hegemonic masculinity in education. Studies have revealed that women outperform men in schools that adopt learning and assessment procedures that are better suited for females than to males. This is based on the difference in behaviors, learning styles and attitudes of male and females thereby requiring implementation of different school and teaching practices in order to succeed. Feminized schools lack adequate number of male teachers to guide boys. Such schools exhibit prejudice towards feminism in curriculum materials, reject competition and luck toughness in discipline. However, hegemonic masculinity may foster highly disruptive, inattentive, and aggressive behavior among males inside and outside the classroom leading to poor educational achievement (Gibb, 2008). Ethical issues arise from hegemonic power processes which occur as subroutines that eventually regulate daily interactions and work flows in organizations, without any open opposition. The implicit nature of hegemonic processes leads to gradual acceptance of organizational practices some of which may be against the general good of the society.The concealed nature of hegemonic processes condition employees t o act according to the rules and social values of everyday life. The employees act upon the decisions made by the ruling class willingly thereby creating retrogressive organizational practices that may potentially hinder them from achieving their objectives. People make such decisions oblivious of the power structure behind such social practices. Hegemonic power revolves around the knowledge power analyses which is all about understanding the ongoing process of meaning and identity formation (Connell, 2005). Normally, people reconstitute and reconsolidate their commonly shared sense of what is real. Certain practices that are considered realistic are entrenched in everyday activities while other possible conceptions are left out. Formation of meaning eventually reflects an individuals identity formation. Implicit and explicit rules and norms in an organization are therefore accepted based on an individuals identification. Through time formation of meanings and identities eventually succumb to change.Consensual social relations cause individuals to accept social inequality in organizations including institutions of learning. Implicit and explicit rules are formed behind through such concealed processes thereby raising ethical issues regarding hegemony. Workers are made to consent to practices that determine labor conditions and division of labor. The informal rules determine the kind of careers that students select based on their gender. Hegemonic masculinity therefore engenders practices that discourage women from pursuing certain career paths with the aim of enhancing male interests. Privatization of public education is one of the fundamental negative effects of hegemony. Through privatization, corporations will get an opportunity to exert undue influence on the discourse of schooling and the curriculum in general. Students and the teachers will suffer alike considering that the quality of education will become compromised through unethical practices of the hegemony of the market economy. Some of these practices include hiring of non union teachers with the aim of lowering expenses. This weakens the labor rights of teachers thereby combating teachers effectiveness. Ideological hegemony may also interfere with teachers effectiveness. Neo-conservatives who normally derive their power from religious fundamentalism rely on legislative enforcement and government sanctions to attain morality in society. On the other hand, neo-liberals advocate for the reign of market forces of demand and supply as a safeguard of their rights in a free market economy. They loathe any form of government interference. Curriculum content is subject to be influenced by neo-conservative in matters relating to morality i.e. evolution vs. creation, sex education, school prayers etc (Gibb, 2008). Teachers effectiveness is reduced the most by the neo liberals who impose their free market mentality on the practices and discourse of schooling through increased privati zations. Teachers can minimize the negative influences of hegemony on education by refusing to accept hegemonic discourse at face value. Teachers should challenge terms used by neoliberals to justify economic transformations which are in essence hegemonic transformations that threaten the well being of academia. Thus, teachers should openly expose the ill intentions of neo liberals by exposing the motive behind the terms such as cutting p...

The Many French Expressions With Avoir (to Have)

The French verb avoir (to have) is one of the most useful, flexible, and basic verbs in the French language, which probably explains its propensity to pop up in a slew of idiomatic expressions. French idiomatic expressions using avoir take you on a tour of the human condition, from feeling blue to feeling great, having charm to having the giggles, being right to being wrong. Expressions That Use Avoir Here are a few of the many expressions that use avoir. avoir ___ ans  Ã‚  to be ___ years oldavoir à  Ã‚   infinitive to have to do somethingavoir beau infinitive despite doing, however much (one) doesavoir besoin de   to needavoir chaud   to be hotavoir confiance en   to trustavoir de la chance   to be luckyavoir du charme   to have charmavoir du chien (informal) to be attractive, have a certain somethingavoir du pain sur la planche (informal) to have a lot to do, have a lot on ones plateavoir du pot (informal) to be luckyavoir envie de   to wantavoir faim   to be hungryavoir froid   to be coldavoir honte de   to be ashamed of/aboutavoir horreur de   to detest/loatheavoir lair (de)  Ã‚  to look (like)avoir la frite  Ã‚  to feel greatavoir la gueule de bois  Ã‚  to have a hangover, to be hungoveravoir la patate   to feel greatavoir le beurre et largent du beurre  Ã‚  to have ones cake and eat it tooavoir le cafard (informal) to feel low / blue / down in the dumpsavoir lesprit de lescalier  Ã‚  t o be unable to think of witty comebacks in timeavoir le fou rire   to have the gigglesavoir le mal de mer   to be seasickavoir les chevilles qui enflent (informal) to be full of oneselfavoir lhabitude de   to be used to, in the habit ofavoir lheure   to have (know) the timeavoir lieu   to take placeavoir lintention de   to intend / plan toavoir mal à   la tà ªte, aux yeux, à   lestomac   to have a headache, a stomachache, eye painavoir mal au cÅ“ur   to be sick to ones stomachavoir peur de   to be afraidavoir raison   to be rightavoir soif   to be thirstyavoir sommeil   to be sleepyavoir tort   to be wrongavoir un chat dans la gorge  Ã‚  to have a frog in ones throatavoir un cheveu (sur la langue) (informal) to lispavoir un petit creux (informal) to be a little hungry / peckishavoir un poil dans la main (informal) to be lazyavoir un trou (de mà ©moire)   to have a memory loss, to have ones mind go blankavoir une dent contre quelquun (informal ) to hold a grudge against someoneavoir une faim de loup (informal) to be ravenous, famishedchacun a son goà »t  Ã‚  to each his ownen avoir (familiar) to have gutsen avoir ras le bol (informal)   to be fed upil y a   noun there is, there are ___il y a period of time ___ agonavoir quà   infinitive to just / only have to do somethingQuand les poules auront des dents  !  Ã‚  When pigs fly!Un tiens vaut mieux que deux tu lauras.  Ã‚  A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.vendre la peau de lours (avant de lavoir tuà ©)  Ã‚  to count ones chickens (before theyre hatched)

Erikson s Stages Of My Life - 1082 Words

Phrases such as â€Å"you are turning into your mother† or â€Å"that’s so something mom would say/do,† have become increasingly more common with each passing year of my life. I have come to accept the fact that not only do my mother and I favor in appearance, but also in many behavioral way as well. My mother recently turned 46, and I chose her as my person of interest because it is the closest I will ever get to interviewing my future self. As well as I know my mother, I have never had the opportunity to analyze her development and her current stage of life. It is amazing what one can learn and take away from a few simple questions when they are based on theory, especially Erikson’s. It is clear to see every one of Erikson’s stages play out within my mother’s life. As a 46-year-old woman, she has achieved most all of the beginning stages, such as autonomy and industry, but it was not until after she was married, at age 22, that she gained a more clear and confident identity while she simultaneously worked toward achieving intimacy. Though Erikson believed that one must have a secure self identity before moving onto the next stage, which includes marriage, it is evident in the case of my mother that the relationships she formed after marriage are what makes up the majority of her current identity. In stage seven she developed a mature love and fully found her identity through experiences as a mother and wife. She even went as far as to say that she would have â€Å"most likely turnedShow MoreRelatedPiaget s Theory Of Cognitive Development969 Words   |  4 Pagesis constantly expanding. Erikson and Piaget are two of the ealier well known theorist, both being significant in the field. Their belief s are outlined in Piaget s Cognitive Development Theory and Erikson s Psychosocial Development Theory. These theories, both similar and different, have a certain significance as the stages are outlined.Erikson and Piaget were similar in their careers and made huge progressions in child development and education. With the same goals in my, their theories still hadRead MoreErik Erikson s Theory Of Psychosocial Development1445 Words   |  6 PagesErik Erikson was an ego psychologists who developed one of the utmost popular and prominent theories of development. While Erikson’s theory was influenced by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud s work, Erikson s theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development. Erik Erikson s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. UnlikeRead MoreErikson s Psychosocial Theory : Development Of Ego Identity1293 Words   |  6 Pagestheory Erik Erikson was a student of another theorist, Sigmund Freud. Erikson expanded on Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson later developed the psychosocial theory. This theory described the effect of one’s social experiences throughout one’s whole lifespan. One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. The ego was taken from Freud’s theory. Erikson added threeRead MoreTheories And Theory Of Psychosocial Development Essay1255 Words   |  6 Pages Life is full of many experiences and challenges which help individuals to grow and become better people. There has been tons of research to better understand how and why humans develop and grow the way they do. Among the many theories and therapist in the field of psychology, I have chosen psychosexual and psychosocial development to provide basic tenets, explain why they are important to my future discipline and also analyze the relationship between my chosen therapist Freud and Erikson. TwoRead MoreThe Theorist I Choose For This Paper That I Believe I Relate1509 Words   |  7 Pageschoose for this paper that I believe I relate to the most is Erik Erikson. Erik Erikson is best known for his theory on identity, which was a theory that was broadened from Sigmund Freud while retaining its core work (Schultz, D. Schultz, S., 2013). Erik Erikson’s mother, who was Jewish, became pregnant but a man that was not her husband after her husband’s disappearance. She was sent to Germany, where she gave birth to Erik. Erik Erikson grew up believing his pediatrician was his biological fatherRead MorePsychology Life Spans1433 Words   |  6 Pages Development throughout the Lifespan The development of our personalities throughout our lifespan can be broken down into various stages when considering Erikson’s approach to psychology development. Each person moves through these stages during life, which directly affects his or her success in the next stage. The personality is being built and shaped at each stage. The first step is to summarize what was learned about the psychosocial development through observations/ interviews. Second, summarizeRead MoreThe Theory Of Human Development Theory1642 Words   |  7 Pagesthat of Jean Piaget’s, who believed that all human development and behavior was the product of consistent and reliable patterns of interactions with the environment called schemas. Piaget divided his Theory of Cognitive development into four stages. Each stage is characterized by overall structures and sequences of development, which consist of â€Å"schemas.† Schemas are the primary component of intelligent behavior, which adapt through a continuous process of assimilation and accommodation, in anRead MoreMy Future Specialization Will Be Working With Children And Adolescent921 Words   |  4 PagesMy future specialization will be working with children and adolescent. My focus will be to find out why the children are behaving in a manner that is unhealthy for them. Then I will use the theory that is more in place helping me in helping them manage what they experienced or are experiencing with a more optimistic attitude. For example, there are many children and youth who are still trying to determine â€Å"who they are and their purpose in life†. As Erikson 1950, 1968; and Ferrer-Wreder et al (2008Read MoreErik Erikson s Theory Of Psychosocial Development Essay1177 Words   |  5 Pages Erik Erikson was born in Greman in 1902-1994, American psychoanalyst; known for psychosocial theory of emotional development of human beings. His theory looks at the impact of parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. Erikson believes, each person has to pass through a series of eight stages over there entire life cycle. I will look at the first 3 stages that cover the childhood years. There are set of conflict at each stage, which allows individual to developRead MoreErikson and Personal Psychosocial Stage1681 Words   |  7 PagesRenowned psychologist Erik Erikson is best known for his theory of psychosocial stages of personality development. Unlike Freud, Erikson’s theory spans a person’s entire lifespan, from childhood to old age. One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity (Cherry, 2013). Ego Identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction (Cherry, 2013). Erikson believed that our ego identity is constantly changing due to new

Identifying Opportunities as an Hadoop Developer

Question: Give a literature review on identifying opportunities as an Hadoop developer . Answer: Proposal The objective of this particular research paper is evaluating all the activities, which are required in Hadoop. The literature review and the research paper are developed by adopting different kinds of research methodologies by matching the requirements of the selected topic. The most important point is to idea of the data collection method, which guides the research paper to support the investigation procedure with relevant facts as well as relevant findings. Introduction In modern generations, there is an enormous technological advancement as compared with the traditional framework (Abiteboul, 2012). The assignment will focus on all the key elements which are to emphasize on the fact about the importance of Hadoop and its different kinds of employment opportunity. In the era of modern technology, upgrades are occurring at each and every second (Jonker PetkovicÃÅ' , 2012). There are certain applications of the various kinds of data storage management system which have gained primary importance in the recent time. The literature review of the study, will emphasis on different types of key factors which will conclude about the effectiveness of the Hadoop in the industry. Literature Review The assignment is structured by following the notion of action research methodology which empowers different individuals to share their daily experiences in about Hadoop (Jonker PetkovicÃÅ' , 2012). The purpose of the action plan will investigate the study into various forms which include purpose of the assignment, stages of action research which include initial reflection, planning, action, an observation which is followed by reflection. Hadoop is the open source database system which mainly runs on computing platform which primarily used to process data. One of the most important points which need to be analyzed keeping is the fault tolerance of this particular applications (Park, 2012). One of the moist common terms is the implementation of the big data in the information technology. Data that would make too much time and the cost is very much cost effective in the overall business operations (Holmes, 2012). The applications of big data do not require any specific parameters towards evaluating the different segmentation of the various kinds of evidence. There are certain advantages as well as certain disadvantages towards the application of the Hadoop in the various sectors (Jonker PetkovicÃÅ' , 2012). However, some of the highlighted issues which are identified in the overall operations of the big data are highlighted in the following part of the assignment (Park, 2012). One of the most significant points is the data transfer rate which includes a speed of 10 MB per second, and a standard disk is made up of 1 terabyte, and the most important things are the read time which includes 10000 seconds in a duration of the 3 hours (Wiggins, 2012). Advantages and Utility of Hadoop The question may conclude what are different kinds of application of this particular technology and why it is becoming very much popular. In this generations, every firmly believes in the process of the multitasking which includes the notion of the performing more than one job at a particular point in time (Sammer, 2012). The will conclude that the application of the multiple processors to solve different questions at the same problem by fragmenting it into pieces. The key issues which are involved in this particular solution are to evaluate hardware failure, combine the data with different kinds of analysis and various types of network associated problems (Turkington, 2013). One of the key advantages which can be concluded in the process of developing a proper Hadoop is to reduce the application of different kinds of map (Wiggins, 2012). As a result, it reduces the amount of communication which can be generated by the processes as every individual in the organization will be able to process by a particular task from one another (Turkington, 2013). By developing a proper restricting system, the communication between nodes becomes distributed system very much, and it is much more reliable (Jonker PetkovicÃÅ' , 2012). However, it is an open storage framework which is designed for the application of the storage and processing of different kinds of large scale data on various types of clusters of commodity hardware (Park, 2012). Hadoop Ecosystem The Hadoop ecosystem comprises of individual applications which conclude four crucial factors. Hadoop Common, which contains a library and other modules, HDFS, which is known as Hadoop, distributed file system, Hadoop YARN, and Hadoop Map Reduce, which is a programming model for large scale data processing (Jonker PetkovicÃÅ' , 2012). However the overall method towards understanding the computation across multiple nodes where each node processes the data that is stored at that node where it mainly consists of two main phases which include map and reduce (Lee, 2012). This part of the study will concentrate on the different kinds of factors which will conclude about the various kinds of job opportunities in the industry (Latifi, 2012). The notion of the storage system is one of the key applications which majority of the industries irrespective of nature as well as the purpose of the business applies in the firm operations (Prajapati, 2013). There is an enormous scope of Hadoop as it reads data as key and value pairs. The application of Hadoop is not restricted in this field only. There are five additional factors which conclude the use of Hadoop, which includes hive, used for processing, pig used for processing and scripting, Hbase used for database model and Flume, which are designed for large scale data environment (Sarkar, 2013). Conclusion The concluding part of the assignment will evaluate the application of the Hadoop. The entire literature review is supported by different kinds of the utility of Hadoop, and it mainly describes the various services in the industries. The application of Hadoop is primarily used towards for different types of the data processing and different kinds of data storage system. The assignment is supported as well as well constructed by real and relevant examples by gathering different kinds of information from the industries. Action research format is followed towards the process of organizing this particular project. The notion of the Hadoop has provided one of the major breakthroughs in the IT industry as storage, data and data processing are the key factors which are included in the overall operations. The concept of multitasking is getting popular day by day and the application of Hadoop is getting more popularized with the process multitasking activities in IT industry. Reference List Abiteboul, S. (2012).Web data management. New York: Cambridge University Press. Continuing innovation in information technology. (2012). Washington, D.C. Holmes, A. (2012).Hadoop in practice. Shelter Island, NY: Manning. Jonker, W. PetkovicÃÅ' , M. (2012).Secure data management. Berlin: Springer. Latifi, S. (2012).Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Information Technology. Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Society. Lee, R. (2012).Computer and information science 2012. Berlin: Springer. Park, J. (2012).Information technology convergence, secure and trust computing, and data management. Dordrecht: Springer. Prajapati, V. (2013).Big Data analytics with R and Hadoop. Birmingham: Packt Publishing. Sammer, E. (2012).Hadoop operations. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. Sarkar, D. (2013).Microsoft SQL Server 2012 with Hadoop. Birmingham, UK: Packt Pub. Turkington, G. (2013).Hadoop Beginner's Guide. Birmingham: Packt Pub. Wiggins, B. (2012).Effective document and data management. Farnham, Surrey: Gower.

Theodore Roosevelt Essays (868 words) - , Term Papers

Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt ?The life of Theodore Roosevelt (1858?1919) was one of constant activity, immense energy, and enduring accomplishments. As the twenty-sixth President of the United States, Roosevelt was the wielder of the Big Stick, the builder of the Panama Canal, an avid conservationist, and the nemesis of the corporate trusts that threatened to monopolize American business at the start of the century. His exploits as a Rough Rider in the Spanish-American War and as a cowboy in the Dakota Territory were indicative of his spirit of adventure and love of the outdoors. Reading and hunting were lifelong passions of his; writing was a lifelong compulsion.? After graduating magna cum laude, from the Harvard University, Theodore began to lay the building blocks for his public career. He began one of the most historic political careers ever. Roosevelt put his early political years in these words, ?I rose like a rocket?. After being a New York Assemblyman, United States Civil Commissioner, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Roosevelt played a significant role in the Spanish-American War. The Spanish, who once thrived in the new world, really only controlled Cuba now. But the Cubans attempted several times to receive their independence. The Cubans were mistreated, so the United States stepped in. War was declared against Spain by the United States. As the war went on Roosevelt began a group called the Rough Riders. This group consisted of largely cowboys, Indians, and college athletes. The group was led by Teddy and Colonel Leonard Wood. On June 30, the Rough Riders marched to Santiago. Then On July 1, the Rough Riders played a huge role in the American victory at San Juan Hill. Now with the Hills, Teddy the Rough Riders and the rest of the American troops, were ready to attack Santiago. Later, because Spain could not fight anymore, Spain asked for a peace agreement. Now Teddy was a war hero, this is nothing but help his chances for the U.S. President spot. After holding the governor spot over New York, Theodore ran as Vice President with William McKinley. On September 6, 1901 President McKinley was assassinated by, a anarchist named Leon Czolgosz. And the Rough Rider, cowboy, was now the President of the United States. ?Although only 42, by far the youngest president in the nation's history up to that time, Roosevelt brought solid qualifications to the office.? ? No event had a more profound effect on Theodore Roosevelt's political career.? As the President, Roosevelt look out for the best interest of the United States. In dealing with business, President Roosevelt was determined to see that no ?Big Business? had a monopoly. As a result in early 1902, the attorney-general was ordered by Teddy to file a suit against The Northern Securities Company, which was a railroad investment company. The company controlled 3 major railroads in the Northwest. The Northwest Securities Company was charged with being a monopoly, under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Supreme Court later ruled on the case a said the Northern Securities Company must be broken up because they were ?combination in restraint of trade.? Because of the success that Roosevelt won in this case, he brought charges on over 40 more Big Businesses. The most important businesses broken up by the Supreme Court, as a result of Roosevelt's actions were the Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company. Because the antitrust cases were took so long to get to the Supreme Court, Roosevelt asked Congress to pass the Expedition Act, which sped the process. Roosevelt did not discriminate big businesses simply because they were big, he looked for the businesses that posed a threat to the public. ?Roosevelt's action against big businesses won him the title ?trust buster'. One of the biggest challenge Roosevelt took on was getting the Panama Canal built. The United States and Great Britain signed a treaty which gave the U.S. exclusive rights to build, and operate a canal in Central America. There was some disagreement where the canal would be built, but the final decision was Panama, where a French company had been digging but went bankrupt. In June of 1902 congress passed the Isthmian Canal Act, which authorized the purchase of the French land for $40 million. But the United States also had to get control of the canal zone from what was then Colombia. Secretary of State made an agreement with Thomas Herran to purchase, the right to control the land, for $10 million plus $250,000 yearly. The U.S. Senate accepted it but, the Colombian senate rejected the offer, hoping to get more money. At this point Roosevelt considered taking the land by force. He called them(Colombian senate) corrupted, and he said they were trying to black-mail the United States. But the people who lived in Panama were resentful to Colombia government, and a revolt was

Ethnic Nationalism and Social Mobilisation in a Globalising World †Anthropology Research Paper

Ethnic Nationalism and Social Mobilisation in a Globalising World – Anthropology Research Paper Free Online Research Papers The rapid expansion of institutions of global capital, coupled with the spread of neoliberal democracy throughout the nations of the so-called Third World present a number of problems for discussion. The process of globalisation has resulted in massive changes to social, economic and cultural norms in developing countries and has consequently encountered significant resistance from peoples increasingly concerned with the present and future ramifications of this form of globalisation. It is my contention that the rise or resurgence of nationalism in countries experiencing the effects of development programs and economic globalisation is directly linked to these factors. This essay will discuss how and why nationalism has become so prominent in â€Å"modernising† states, as well as the implications of increased nationalist identification on other forms of social mobilisation. I will first outline the scope of this essay. Nationalism as a movement and ideology has been subject to considerable criticism – many have pointed to the justification that nationalism has historically provided for genocide, in Germany, Turkey and Israel for example. The history of the nation as an instrument of social organisation is in fact characterised by violent conflict, between and particularly within states. This essay will not, however, dedicate any substantial space to the ideological or moral problems that surround nationalism. The aim of this essay is not to point out the â€Å"folly† of developing countries adopting such a potentially problematic form of identity building, instead it is to discuss the role of culture in the creation of the nation and relate this to processes of globalisation. From a functional-analytical perspective then, we can avoid the potential problems inherent to rationalism and cross-cultural criticism, namely ethnocentricity and un iversalism. One further difficulty in writing this essay involves the use of terminology. Though extremely prevalent in the discourse, â€Å"development†, â€Å"modernisation†, â€Å"third world† and variants of these terms create the implication that non- or partially industrialised countries of the South are backward, or inferior to the (post) industrial North. Indeed, these terms articulate an idea of historical and cultural linearity; i.e. that these backwards nations must inevitably undergo the same processes of industrial development experienced by the North in order to modernise their economic and social institutions. This idea is fundamentally refuted by the majority of anthropologists. To Franz Boas, for example, all cultures are equally developed according to their own priorities and values; none is better, more advanced, or less primitive than any other. Despite the importance of this notion of cultural relativism, I will persist with the (albeit cautious) use of these terms. When discussing â€Å"developing† or â€Å"modernising† nations, my usage will not be normative; instead I will simply be referring to the processes of top-down industrialisation that are being undertaken in a given country. The rise of nationalism Nationalism and the nation, as contested concepts prove difficult to define. As previously mentioned, nationalism can be viewed as the cause of hugely destructive wars, the justification for racial hatred – an intrinsically irrational movement that has created irrational, illiberal and oppressive political regimes. Yet the nation-state system; a conceptualisation of the world as divided geographically on the basis of national identity in order to bring about and maintain peace and democracy, is also a crucial fundament of liberal-rationalist thought. The origins of the nation are also contested, with nationalists and perennialists arguing that nationalism is a universal, naturally occurring, timeless human characteristic, while others posit the nation as a relatively recent, culturally constructed entity. Indeed, it has been suggested that there are different types of nationalisms; for example distinctions have been made between â€Å"Western† and â€Å"Eastern† , â€Å"good† and â€Å"evil† , â€Å"civic† and â€Å"ethnic† nationalisms, while others maintain that there is only one set of nationalist modular forms originating primarily in Western Europe, which have been appropriated by nationalist elites in Africa, Asia and Latin America. On top of this, there is debate between the modernist and post-modernist camps over how much analytical weight should be placed on ethnicity and primordial factors – i.e. the past – when looking at nation-building and nationalist movements. An excellent starting point for any discussion of the nation is Benedict Anderson’s characterisation of â€Å"imagined political communit[ies]†. In this sense, the nation is not a historical given; instead it is the product of socio-historical processes. The very fact that though the vast majority of members of a nation will experience no direct – or even indirect – contact with one another, that they feel a consciousness of kinship with their national fellows highlights the imagined, constructed nature of national identity. This is not to say that the community of nation is false, or fabricated in comparison to other, â€Å"real† communities – indeed the notion of community can be seen as essentially imagined itself; that communal identity itself only exists in the mind. Despite its fundamentally imagined, constructed nature, the nation has proven to be a powerful force in constructing collective identity and social mobilisation. How, then , can we come to terms with the power that this constructed identity exerts over the citizens of a nation, such that they would be willing to die in order to protect their imagined community from an external threat? A historical perspective will perhaps prove enlightening. If we are to accept that the nation and nationalism are the result of socio-historical circumstances, rather than part of the immutable human condition, then one must be able to trace the roots of this construction. Nationalism as an ideology, whereby the world is considered as already divided into independent nations; where an individual’s first loyalty is to the nation; where belonging to a nation is a prerequisite for freedom; and the autonomy of nations is the only path to peace, can be traced to eighteenth century Europe. The first modern mass nations formed later, in the nineteenth century. This sits comfortably with Gellner’s view, that nations are constructed from the top down, whereby elites manipulate mythic history in order to further their own interests – to him â€Å"it is nationalism that engenders nations, and not the other way round.† This modernist perspective suggests that nation building is purely a result of nationalist thought, which in turn stems from facets of modern industrial society (i.e. the creation of the nation-state system) and can be achieved independently of cultural or ethnic pasts. When looking at early Western nations, this view may hold true – the formation of Great Britain, as well as the French and American republics, it is argued, were achieved through a focus on civic structures, that is, the rule of law and shared political practices and values (i.e. neoliberal democracy). In this sense the ethnic and cultural heritage of these nations played only a peripheral role in their proactive construction. This, however, does not explain later forms of nationalism which are undoubtedly ethnic in origin. It is difficult to suggest that the Mayan neo-nationalist movement for example results purely from an elitist manipulation of the masses – there is undoubtedly a preexisting communal worldview which is shared by the movement’s leaders and the Mayan people. Though this shared cultural connection is constructed, imaginary, it provides a definite framework upon which a nation can be constituted. According to Clifford Geertz, kin connection, being born into a particular religious community, speaking a particular language or dialect, and the following of particular social practices are primordial, or deep cultural meanings upon which nationalism is built. Furthermore, these meanings represent a more convincing basis for the creation of neo-nationalisms than the economic and social factors presented by modernists. Though these play a considerable role, the fact that the rise of â€Å"ethnic† nationalisms does not strongly correlate with economic trends suggests a deeper cultural basis. So too, the suggestion that early Western nationalisms were voluntarily adopted and civic in nature and transgressed ethnic or religious backgrounds is dubious at best – American nationalism for example began with a racially and religiously restricted core community of white Catholics, and then proceeded to expand to the civic structures now apparent. Clearly the perennialist viewpoint, that nations are immutable entities that have existed forever in various forms is not particularly useful in understanding the formation of new nationalisms, particularly given the focus on â€Å"medieval† history as it informs the present. Nations, as cultural constructs are clearly able to be both manipulated, and to naturally change –just as history itself is capable. The modernist viewpoint, though it may (or may not) account for nationalisms of the nineteenth century, is also limited as it tends to ignore the cultural basis of new nationalisms and fails to adequately explain the resurgence of nationalism in developing nations. The postmodern explanation of nation building, where existing cultural (primordial) elements are used to construct collective identity is perhaps the best equipped to deal with neo-nationalisms, though it may tend to exaggerate the control that is exercised by elites in selecting and constructing history. It would appear that there is a clear distinction between new nationalisms, which are primarily ethnic in origin, and old nationalisms which are based on civic and political structures. This idea has been articulated by many, including Kohn who equates â€Å"civic† with â€Å"Western† and later with â€Å"good† forms of nationalism, as opposed to its â€Å"ethnic†, â€Å"non-Western†, â€Å"evil† opposite. This ethnocentric conception of nationalism is flawed insofar as it ignores the history of modern civic states and ascribes normative values through othering non-Western forms; an idea which can be seen to stem from a â€Å"liberal-rationalist dilemma† whereby a fundamentally â€Å"good† idea (nationalism) can create illiberal movements and regimes. However from an analytical or functional perspective, it is clear that many of the new nationalist movements are primarily ethnic in nature, and in fact are more about creating i dentity than manufacturing a civic nation state. And even though it is arguable that Western nations do not solely exhibit the characteristics of purely civic nationalism, there is a clear emphasis on the state and its political apparatus in the loyalties of civic nationals. Thus, we may use this ethnic-civic opposition – not to criticise ethnic nationalisms or to celebrate civic nationalism – but to understand their creation. Globalisation and the new nationalism Having looked at the rise of nationalism, we will turn to the effects of globalisation in developing countries and how these effects have contributed to the new nationalist revival. In particular, I would like to focus on Latin America, the countries within which have experienced recent nationalist ascendancies. While it is well beyond the scope of this essay to explore globalisation or its impacts in any significant way, I will briefly address a few of the key concerns as they relate to the neo-nationalist movements. As global capitalism spreads via supranational organisations like the Bretton Woods institutions (the neoliberal economic policies of which are adopted by national leaders in the South), the social, cultural and economic conventions of traditional societies are uprooted. The dislocation of peasant communities to urban areas as a result of increased competition requirements and susceptibility to fluctuations in the market, as well as reductions in peasant land rights has resulted in a changed social base in Latin America. On top of this, peasants are able to observe changing (Westernising) values in their communities. For example: kinsmen and neighbours may be less likely to extend help to one another; traditional behavioural practices may disappear; the rewards for traditional social participation may be discarded in favour of monetary reimbursement. This change in peasants’ identity and communal relationships contributes to a sense of helplessness, a lack of control of thei r own identity. Overall, globalisation – particularly in the rapidly expanding form that we have observed through the 1990s – has contributed substantially to the loss of cultural and social individual identity in peasant communities, which has been supplanted by nationalist communal identity. Nationalism and social mobilisation Given the fundamental importance of identity in affecting social mobilisation Manuel Castells provides an excellent framework for interpreting identity. Of three types of collective identity creation, he locates ethnic nationalism (though he prefers the term â€Å"cultural nationalism†) as a resistance identity. In this sense identity is generated by people experiencing domination and lack of agency, where an oppositional paradigm is created to resist this domination. In the case of nationalism, and given what has been discussed prior, we can see that it is the rapidly changing cultural, as well as social and economic factors being imposed on these countries as they are dragged into â€Å"modernity† that are seen as repressive. As Western elites push for internationalisation and the expansion of global capitalism, and elites in developing nations (as per resource mobilisation theory ) create national identity based on – and often exaggerating – existing cultural traditions, Western capitalist hegemony is in a sense resisted. The cr eation of communes of homogenous resistance based on previously existing, though often latent cultural identities is, however, a defensive strategy that seeks to preserve a sense of the status quo by embellishing upon cultural and ethnic heritage, not an active resistance that seeks to affect systemic and political change. The actual process of mobilisation is not as clear-cut as highlighted above, though this conception of it will suffice given the scope of this essay. As suggested earlier, the postmodern conception of nation building as elites â€Å"picking and choosing† from history to construct mass national identity is an oversimplification, and does not account for the variations between different nationalist movements in terms of elite-mass relationships and interaction, or for the â€Å"uneven ethno-histories† articulated by Anthony Smith. In terms of understanding the role of the nation and nationalism in social mobilisation, though, it affords us the ability to contrast this reactive, reactionary form of identity with the more progressive form described by Castell as â€Å"project identity†. Project identity involves a redefinition of a group’s position in society in order to achieve societal change – specifically through challenging the overarching systems of dominance (i.e. capitalism). To Castells, given the primacy of identification in social mobilisation, nationalist identity serves to diminish the potential for project identity creation, although this is not to say that a resistance identity like that created through cultural nationalism cannot transform into a positive project-based identity. Conclusions Though the nation is a culturally constructed phenomenon it provides its members with a powerful source of identity and as a result is a potent instrument of social mobilisation. The contemporary nationalist movements in developing nations are not the result of top-down elitist manipulation, nor are they simply appropriations of Western nationalisms. When analysing the causation and construction of new nationalisms, the distinction between civic and ethnic nationalism is a useful, though problematic one. Ethnic or cultural nationalism is a reactive form of collective identity-building, where the creation of cultural communities (trenches) is essentially a resistance to changing social, cultural and economic systems. These changes are a direct result of economic globalisation, particularly the development and modernisation processes imposed by elites upon peasants. Finally, the formation of national identity as a comfort zone for disenfranchised peasants can be seen to inhibit the cre ation of more progressive or proactive social movements which would seek to transform overall social structures, and therefore address the problems associated with the spread of global capitalism. Bibliography Anderson, Benedict (1993) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. 2nd Revised Edition ed. London: Verso Boas, Franz (1948). The Mind of Primitive Man. New York, Macmillan, p. 52 Castells, Manuel. (1996) The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell, p.29 Chatterjee, Partha (1986) â€Å"Nationalism as a Problem in the History of Political Ideas†. Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World. London: Zed Books, p.2 Eckstein, Susan (2001) â€Å"Where Have All the Movements Gone? Latin American Social Movements at the New Millennium.† Power and Popular Protest. California: UCP, pp. 351-407 Geertz, Clifford (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, p. 14 Gellner, Ernest. (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp. 6-7. c.f. Smith, Anthony D. (1995) op. cit, pp. 2-8 Ignatieff, Michael (1994) Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism. New York: Norton Kohn, Hans (1946) The Idea of Nationalism. New York: Macmillan Robbins, Richard (1999) Global Problems and the Culture of Capitalism. MA: Allyn and Bacon, ch. 4 Smith, Anthony D. (1994) â€Å"Gastronomy or geology? The role of nationalism in the reconstruction of nations.† Nations and Nationalism 1, no. 1: 3-23. pp. 18-19 Smith, Anthony D. (1995) Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era. Oxford: Blackwell, p.52 Wickham-Crowley, Timothy (1989) â€Å"Winners, Losers and Also-Rans: Toward a Comparative Sociology of Latin American Guerrilla Movements† in Susan Eckstein ed. Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements Berkely, CA: University of California Press Wolf, Eric (2002) â€Å"Peasants and Revolution† in Pathways of Power. Berkely, CA: UCP, pp. 230-231 Research Papers on Ethnic Nationalism and Social Mobilisation in a Globalising World - Anthropology Research PaperAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeBringing Democracy to AfricaPETSTEL analysis of IndiaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andQuebec and CanadaDefinition of Export QuotasAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Analysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in Capital